CHAPTER 8: Toxicology

WHAT IS TOXICOLOGY?

     Toxicology is the scientific study of adverse effects that occur in living organisms due to chemicals. It involves observing and reporting symptoms, mechanisms, detection and treatments of toxic substances, in particular relation to the poisoning of humans.

     It includes environmental agents and chemical compounds found in nature, as well as pharmaceutical compounds that are synthesized for medical use by humans. These substances may produce toxic effects in living organisms including disturbance in growth patterns, discomfort, disease and death.

     It also studies the harmful effects of chemical, biological and physical agents in biological systems that establishes the extent of damage in living organisms. The relationship between dose and its effects on the exposed organism is of high significance in toxicology. Factors that influence chemical toxicity include the dosage (and whether it is acute or chronic); the route of exposure, the species, age, sex and environment.

(http://www.toxicologyguide.com/886-environmental/)

Environmental health toxicology is the study of the adverse effects of environmental chemicals on human health.

TYPES OF TOXICANTS:

ALLERGENS

    Any substance, often a protein, that induces an allergy : common allergens include pollen, grasses, dust, and some medications

MUTAGENS

      Biological, chemical, or physical agent, process, or substance that causes permanent genetic change (mutation) in a cell (other than which occurs during normal cell growth) due to genetic alterations or loss of genes or chromosomes. Such mutations may be the early steps in a sequence of events that ultimately lead to development of cancer.

TERATOGEN

     A teratogen is anything that can disrupt the development of an embryo or fetus in a pregnant mother's womb. A teratogen may cause a birth defect, malformation, or terminate the pregnancy altogether.

NEUROTOXIN 

    Any substance that is capable of causing damage to nerves or nerve tissue. For example, arsenic and lead are neurotoxins.

ENDOCRINE DISRUPTORS 

     The endocrine system is a complex system consisting of glands in the body that produce hormones. Examples are the thyroid gland in the throat, the pituitary gland in the brain, the adrenals, pancreas and ovaries in the abdomen, and the testicles, which lie outside the abdomen.

(http://pesbritneyf.blogspot.my/2012/09/smoking.html)

It can divided into 2 broad categories:

Toxic- Poisonous

It can be general or very specific and it often harmful even in dilute concentrations.

Hazardous -Dangerous

It can be flammable, explosive, irritant, acid and very corrosive substance.

EXPOSURE AND SUSCEPTIBILITY 

• Condition of organism and timing of exposure also have strong influences on toxicity

• Airborne toxins generally cause more ill health than any other exposure (lining of lungs easily absorbs toxins)

• Largest toxin exposure reported in industrial settings.

(https://www.researchgate.net/figure/6423230_fig3_Fig-3-Traditional-epidemiology-evaluates-possible-associations-between-either-risk)

HOW TO DETERMINE THE DANGEROUS OF CHEMICAL?

Most of the chemicals you might use at work are not dangerous if you use them properly and know what to do if something goes wrong (such as spillage). But some chemicals need more careful handling than others. Labels can help you identify the more hazardous chemicals, tell you what the dangers are, and how to avoid them

HAZARD SYMBOL These are always black on orange . They alert you to the main dangers posed by the chemical. Other symbols you might expect to see are illustrated overleaf. Not all labels will have symbols, but all will contain the brief list of warnings and safety advice.

INDICATION OF DANGER This gives the meaning of the symbol.

WARNINGS AND SAFETY ADVICE The label also contains a brief list of warnings and safety advice. The law requires suppliers of chemicals to tell you what hazards a chemical might pose and how to use it safely. The information is brief but important. If it advises you to avoid contact with skin then you should do just that. The advice is on the label for your safety.

(http://www.planetdeadly.com/nature/10-dangerous-chemical-elements)

TYPES OF EFFECTS:

• Local effects – damage at the site where a chemical first comes into contact with the body; examples are redness, burning and irritation of the skins.

• Systemic effects – adverse effects associated with generalized distribution of the chemical throughout the body by bloodstream to internal organ.

• Target organ effects – some chemical may confine their effects to specific organ; the most common organs affected by such chemicals are liver, lungs, heart, kidneys, brain and nervous system, and the reproductive system.

REFERENCES

• ://www.planetdeadly.com/nature/10-dangerous-chemical-elements
• https://www.ucu.org.uk/media/2774/Read-the-label-how-to-find-out-if-chemicals-are-dangerous---HSE-factsheet/pdf/hse_chemicals.pdf
• https://www.researchgate.net/figure/6423230_fig3_Fig-3-Traditional-epidemiology-evaluates-possible-associations-between-either-risk
• http://pesbritneyf.blogspot.my/2012/09/smoking.html
• http://www.greenfacts.org/en/endocrine-disruptors/l-2/endocrine-disruptors-1.htm
• http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=11751
• http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Teratogen
• http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/mutagen.html
• http://www.dictionary.com/browse/allergen
• http://www.toxicologyguide.com/886-environmental/
• http://www.news-medical.net/health/What-is-Toxicology.aspx

                               

CHAPTER 6 : Vector Control

APAKAH ITU VEKTOR?

• Haiwan atau serangga yang membawa penyakit kepada manusia.

APAKAH ITU PEST?

• Haiwan atau serangga yang melakukan kerosakan harta benda di dalam kediaman atau rumah kita
  
  .

(http://www.vecteezy.com/vector-art/103943-free-pest-control-vector)

JENIS VEKTOR

• Mechanical Vectors

-Mechanical transmission takes place when a vector simply carries pathogenic microorganisms on their body and transfers them to food, which we then consume. Flies and cockroaches are in this category. Flies like to rest on faecal matter and then may move on to fresh food. They can carry infectious agents through their mouth and on their legs and other body parts. They deposit these agents on ready-to-eat foods and the recipient gets infected if they consume the contaminated food.

• Biological vectors

-Biological transmission involves the multiplication and growth of a disease-causing agent inside the vector’s body.

Malaria is a good example of biological transmission. The female mosquitoes take the malaria infectious agent (Plasmodium) from an infected person with a blood meal. After sexual reproduction in the gut of the mosquito, the infectious agent migrates into the salivary gland of the insect, where it grows in size, matures and becomes ready to infect humans. When the mosquito next bites a human the saliva is injected into the skin and transfers the infection in doing so. An infectious agent may be passed from generation to generation of vector — this happens mostly in ticks and mites.

http://slideplayer.com/slide/4472741/



JENIS JENIS HAIWAN VECTOR







Rodents

Lipas

Nyamuk

Lalat

Fleas (kutu tikus)

Lipas

RODENTS

Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus)

Also known as the brown rat or sewer rat, Norway rats are most numerous in urban areas. They burrow and live in the ground, and in woodpiles, debris, sewers and rubbish. Norway rats are omnivorous, which means they eat a wide variety of foods, but they mostly prefer cereal grains, meat, fish, nuts and some fruits. They do not travel more than 100 metres in search of water and food. When Norway rats invade buildings, they usually remain in the basement or ground floor. They reproduce rapidly (four to seven times a year producing eight to twelve young per litter with a gestation period of 22 days). The adult is relatively large in size, with a short tail and small ears. Their lifespan is 9–12 months.

Roof rats (Rattus rattus)

Also know as the black or grey rat, roof rats are more numerous in rural areas. They live in roofs, and eat mainly grains. They are smaller than Norway rats with longer tails and ears. They are excellent climbers and usually live and nest above ground in shrubs, trees and dense vegetation. In buildings, they are most often found in enclosed or elevated spaces in attics, walls, false ceilings, roofs and cabinets. They usually nest in buildings and have a range of 30–45 metres. They can often be seen at night running along overhead utility lines or fence tops, using their long tails for balance. The average number of litters a female roof rat has per year depends on many factors but generally is between three and five, with five to eight young in each litter.

Mice

Mice are smaller in size than rats and generally prefer cereals to eat. They are excellent climbers and can run up any rough vertical surface. They will run horizontally along wire cables or ropes and can jump up to 30 cm from the floor on to a flat surface. Mice can squeeze through openings slightly larger than 1 cm across. In a single year, a female may have five to ten litters of about five to six young. Young are born 19–21 days after mating, and they reach reproductive maturity in 6–10 weeks. The life span of a mouse is about 9–12 months.

MOSQUITOES

There are three main mosquito groups: Anopheles, Culex and Aedes. Anopheles mosquitoes breed in stagnant, relatively clean water bodies; Culex breed in polluted water; and Aedes like relatively clean water. Eggs are laid in a group (150–200 for Anopheles, 200–500 for Culex) on the water surface and hatch into larvae within a few hours. The larvae breathe oxygen from the air and stay at the surface of the water. They feed on organic matter and microorganisms in the water or on the surface. The larva changes into a pupa which can propel itself using paddles at the bottom of the abdomen. The adult mosquito emerges from the pupa on to the surface of the water and then flies away. The duration of the cycle is about 10–14 days depending on the water temperature. 

http://www.open.edu/openlearnworks/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=192&printable=1&extra=thumbnail_idp3751312

Housefly

We are all familiar with this small creature that disturbs us in and around the household and in workplaces. The female lays 200–250 eggs at a time on organic matter. The organic matter could be human faeces, decaying animal and vegetable matter, fresh food or dung. Eggs are white and about 1 mm long. Within 8 to 48 hours the eggs hatch into tiny larvae. These maggots feed voraciously and pass through the three larval stages rapidly; then after four to eight days they pupate. The pupa gradually hardens and changes colour from yellow through red to brown and finally to black. This pupal stage takes three to five days under optimum conditions. The adult fly is attracted to breeding sites that will provide food and warmth for larvae.

You need to know that there are many different types of fly. Flies that are usually seen around a latrine are different from the common housefly in size and colour. However, they share similar breeding and eating behaviour.

Fleas

Adult fleas are ectoparasites of warm-blooded animals. There are human, rat, cat, bird and dog fleas, but they can all readily feed on other species in the absence of their primary host.

The prefix ecto- means ‘on the outside’, as opposed to endo- which means ‘on the inside’.

The human flea infests houses with poor sanitation, especially those with a warm, earth floor and dark places. The adults live by biting and sucking blood. The bite is painful, disturbing and irritating. The fleas may be seen on the host animal or on bedding or clothing. More commonly, humans will be alerted to the presence of fleas from the itching that results from being bitten. The bites of cat fleas tend to be confined to the lower legs and ankles, whereas the bites of human fleas tend to be concentrated around the waist and abdomen.

Females require a fresh blood meal in order to produce eggs. Females lay eight to ten eggs in dark places. The eggs hatch within two days into larvae which feed on organic matter and develop into pupae.

http://www.open.edu/openlearnworks/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=192&printable=1&extra=thumbnail_idp3794032

COCKROACH

AMERICAN COCKROACH

Appearance: American cockroaches are reddish brown with a yellowish figure 8 pattern on the back of their head.

Region: This species is located throughout United States.

Habitat: American cockroaches are often found in sewers and basements, particularly around pipes and drains.

Unique Facts: The American cockroach is the largest of the house-infesting cockroaches. They are active when the temperature is 70 degrees or higher, but they can survive lower temperatures with the right conditions.

GERMAN COCKROACH

Appearance: German cockroaches are light brown to tan with two dark stripes located on their backs. They are oval shaped with six legs and antennae.

Region: This species is located across the United States.

Habitat: German cockroaches can be found throughout structures but show a preference for warm and humid places. They are usually found in kitchens and secondarily in bathrooms, but infestations often occur in rooms where people eat and drink.

Unique Facts: The German cockroach is by far the most important and usually the most common of the cockroaches. In addition to being a nuisance, the German cockroach has been implicated in outbreaks of illness and allergic reactions in many people.

ORIENTAL COCKROACH

Appearance: Oriental Cockroaches are large very dark colored and shiny.

Region: This species is found in the northern region of the United States.

Habitat: Oriental cockroaches are often found in sewers and will enter structures through drains. They find indoor harborage in basements and crawl spaces. They can also be found in leaf piles and firewood outdoors.

Unique Facts: Oriental cockroaches are sometimes called "water bugs" because they come out of drains, and "black beetle cockroaches" because of their smooth, dark bodies. This species creates a strong smell and is considered one of the dirtiest of all the cockroaches.

VECTOR CONTROL STRATEGIES :

BIOLOGICAL 

Biological control assumes that natural predators or parasites are able to suppress pests. Initially, therefore, natural enemies were imported to control the pests. These natural predators were released in small numbers, but once they became established they were effective in the long term. This method is also called inoculation. When the natural predator is introduced periodically, it is known as inundation.

CHEMICAL 

Chemical pesticides are often used to control diseases, pests or weeds. Chemical control is based on substances that are toxic (poisonous) to the pests involved. When chemical pesticides are applied to protect plants from pests, diseases or overgrowth by weeds, we speak of plant protection products. It is of course important that the plant that needs protection does not itself suffer from the toxic effects of the protection products.

PHYSICAL

The use of human hands to remove harmful insects or other toxic material is often the most common action by gardeners. It is also classified as the most direct and the quickest way to remove clearly visible pests. However, it also has equal disadvantages as it must be performed before damage to the plant has been done and before the key development of insects.Mechanical traps or physical attractants are used in three main ways: to efficiently trap insects, to kill them or to estimate how much many insects there are in the total landmassusing sampling method. However, some traps are expensive to produce and can end up benefiting insects rather than harming them.

CULTURAL

In a traditional agriculture system, common cultural controls would be tillage, strategic planting dates, or crop rotation- all practices that in some way interrupt an insect pest's life cycle. A few of the old cultural controls can be rolled over to greenhouse production, of course, but a different setting requires that greenhouse producers rethink the way that they approach cultural controls.

REFERENCES 

• http://www.open.edu/openlearnworks/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=192&printable=1
• http://www.open.edu/openlearnworks/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=192&printable=1&extra=thumbnail_idp3751312
• http://www.open.edu/openlearnworks/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=192&printable=1&extra=thumbnail_idp3794032
• http://blog.brightagrotech.com/cultural-pest-controls/
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_pest_control
• http://www.canna-uk.com/how_control_pests_and_diseases_biological_vs_chemical
• http://www.pestworld.org/news-hub/pest-articles/cockroaches-101/
• http://slideplayer.com/slide/4472741/
• http://www.vecteezy.com/vector-art/103943-free-pest-control-vector
• The note that given by my lecture's note named Encik Mohd Jamalil Azam and I did not own of his note's point.

CHAPTER 5 : Solid And Hazardous Waste Management In Malaysia

Hazardous waste is waste that poses substantial or potential threats to public health or the environment.

Characteristic hazardous wastes are materials that are known or tested to exhibit one or more of the following four hazardous traits:

• ignitability
• reactivity
• corrosivity
• toxicity

Listed hazardous wastes are materials specifically listed by regulatory authorities as hazardous wastes which are from non-specific sources, specific sources, or discarded chemical products.Many types of businesses generate hazardous waste. dry cleaners,automobile repair shops, hospitals, exterminators, and photo processing centers may all generate hazardous waste. Some hazardous waste generators are larger companies such as chemical manufacturers, electroplating companies, and oil refineries. These wastes may be found in different physical states such as gaseous, liquids, or solids. A hazardous waste is a special type of waste because it cannot be disposed of by common means like other by-products of our everyday lives. Depending on the physical state of the waste, treatment and solidification processes might be required. 

Worldwide, the United Nations Environmental Programme(UNEP) estimated that more than 400 million tons of hazardous wastes are produced universally each year, mostly by industrialized countries (schmit, 1999). About 1 percent of this is shipped across international boundaries, with the majority of the transfers occurring between countries in the Organization for the Economic Cooperation and Development(OECD) (Krueger, 1999). One of the reasons for industrialized countries to ship the hazardous waste to industrializing countries for disposal is the rising cost of disposing hazardous waste in the home country.

Type of Solid Waste

(http://zerowaste.uoregon.edu/Factoids.htm)

Type of Hazardous Waste

(http://rapidwasteenviro.com/?page_id=35)

What is technology and system that Malaysia used for solid waste management?

      In Malaysia the system that used to dispose solid waste management are "incinerator" like that used in Langkawi. Incinerator is the process of burning solid waste under controlled conditions to reduce its weight and volume, and often to produce energy. An "incinerators" can dispose up to 1,200 tons of garbage daily.

    Another method is "sanitary garbage disposal" which is disposing of solid waste on land, in a manner that meets most of the standard specifications, including sound silting, extensive site preparation, proper leachate and gas management and monitoring, compaction, daily and final cover, complete access control, and record-keeping.

 Is the law and policy in Malaysia effective in controlling waste from residential and industrial area? 

     Malaysia possesses strict environmental rules and regulations. Currently it has more than 43 environment-related legislations. The core environmental legislation is the Environmental Quality Act of 1974 that provides the legal framework for laws to regulate the activities deemed to affect the environment. Rules and regulations that have been passed under the powers of this act include the Environmental Quality (Clean Air)Regulations of 1978, the Environmental Quality (Prescribed Activities/Environmental Impact Assessment)Order of 1987, and the First Schedule of the Environmental Quality (Scheduled Waste) Regulations of 1989.The Ministry of Science, Technology, and Environment is responsible for the environment in the country; the Department of Environment works under the Ministry. In addition, every state has its separate Department of Environment. The Environmental Quality Council assists the ministers about environmental policies and in the decision-making process. Malaysia has signed and ratified all the international protocols related to the protection of the environment. For example, it is a signatory for the implementation of Agenda 21 (Declarations of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, 1992).  

     Using the provisions of the government act, all local authorities have passed sanitation related by-laws that provide them with the power to regulate solid-waste disposal in their jurisdictions. In addition to general sanitation by-laws, there are other by- laws with waste disposal regulations. For example in the hawkers’ by -laws, there are provisions on how waste generated through their business is to be stored and disposed of. It is important to note that although there is some similarity in the sanitation by-laws among the local authorities in Malaysia, there are also differences. 

    Even though there is law and policy that have been implement but it is not effective as Malaysia generates more solid waste than the amount that can be collected. Which resulted, some of the waste is not collected or legally dispose. Therefore, the law that been applied is not effective to curb the problem of solid waste materials. 

Impacts of Solid Waste

THERE ARE 2 MAIN IMPACT OF SOLID WASTE: 

Health Hazard especially to:

(a) pre-school children 

(b) waste workers 

(c) workers in facilities producing toxic 

Environmental Impact to:  

(a) Animals 

(b) Aquatic life

(http://www.iswa.org/media/publications/iswa-newsletters/iswa-global-news-issue-26-december-2013/)

Solid Waste Issues 

Modernization - a progressive transition from a 'traditional' to a 'modern' society.

Increase in global population and rising demand for food and other essentials, there has been a rise in the amount of waste being generated.

Type of waste generated also changed along with the development of modernity.

Reference :

* http://www.academia.edu/4533397/SOLID_WASTE_MANAGEMENT_IN_MALAYSIA

*http://rapidwasteenviro.com/?page_id=35

*http://zerowaste.uoregon.edu/Factoids.htm

*https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazardous_waste

*http://www.iswa.org/media/publications/iswa-newsletters/iswa-global-news-issue-26-december-2013/

*notes that been given by Encik Mohd Jamalil Azam

CHAPTER 4 : Communicable And Non-communicable Disease

What Are Diseases

Let's say you're sitting at a gate in a major American airport, waiting to board a flight. At a neighboring gate, a flight arrives and several people exit the plane wearing surgical masks. You assume that you should probably avoid these people. They must have some illness and are trying not spread it to a planeload of people. Then, your plane starts loading. You strike up a conversation with someone who's describing their difficulty getting through security with insulin and syringes. They're diabetic, yet not wearing a surgical mask. You aren't worried about catching diabetes, but why? Diabetes is a life-threatening disease after all. To answer this question, we need to examine the main difference between common illnesses.

A disease is any abnormal condition that causes a disruption in the functions of a body tissue, organ, or entire organism. Diseases are recognized by a specific set of symptoms. Think about the diseases you know: a cold, the flu, measles, cancer, stroke, or diabetes, just to name a few. These diseases all disrupt the body in very characteristic ways. Now think about what causes these conditions: viruses, bacteria, fungi, smoking, genetic defects, etc. There are countless diseases, each with its own unique and characteristic cause. But why can you 'catch' some diseases but not others? This is due to the two different types of disease: communicable and noncommunicable.

What Are Communicable Diseases and Non-communicable Diseases

Communicable diseases are spread from person to person or from animal to person. The spread or transfer can happen through the air, through contact with contaminated surfaces, or through direct contact with blood, feces, or other bodily fluids. A cold is an example of a communicable disease (a cold is the general term given to a viral infection of the upper respiratory tract). 

What about other things like cancer, heart disease, and diabetes? You can't 'catch' these right ? These are examples of non-communicable diseases, which are medical conditions that are not infectious and cannot be passed from one person or animal to another. Your fellow passenger with diabetes was either born with it or developed it later in life. Either way, you cannot 'catch' diabetes. 

COMMUNICABLE DISEASES

(http://www.slideshare.net/LaurenDanillo/communicable-and-noncommunicable-disease)

NON-COMMUNICABLE DISEASES

(http://www.slideshare.net/heather1heather1/3-non-communicable-diseases)

Mode of transmission

There are 2 way in that the agent is transferred to a new host, which are :

        

       -Direct   : direct contact

       -Indirect : vehicle and vector borne 

      -Direct contact - microorganisms directly from one individual to another by one or more.

Example of direct contacts :

-Trans placental transmission is relating to, involving, or being passage (as of an antibody) between  mother and fetus through the placenta.

-Person to person: from touching, biting, kissing, sexual intercourse or direct projection of  respiratory droplets into another person's nose or mouth during coughing, sneezing or talking.

Example of indirect contact:

-Vehicles : inanimate or non-living means of transmission of infectious organisms such as handkerchief, soiled clothes and doorknobs.

-Vectors : animate or living vehicles which transmit infections that are usually an arthropod, which transmits an infectious agent to a new host such as houseflies, mosquitoes, lice and ticks.

*all this point's are not mine, it is based from the reference that I found. Please refer the      link/journal.

-http://study.com/academy/lesson/communicable-noncommunicable-diseases-definition-examples.html

-http://www.slideshare.net/heather1heather1/3-non-communicable-diseases

-http://www.slideshare.net/LaurenDanillo/communicable-and-noncommunicable-disease

CHAPTER 3 : ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH EPIDEMIOLOGY

 CHAPTER 3 : ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH EPIDEMIOLOGY

      Epidemiology is the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in specified populations, and the application of this study to control of health problems. Epidemiologists help with study design, collection, and statistical analysis of data, amend interpretation and dissemination of results (including peer review and occasional systematic review). Epidemiology has helped develop methodology used in clinical research, public health studies, and, to a lesser extent, basic research in the biological sciences.

This are 2 type of the epidemiology : 

(http://www.newhealthadvisor.com/Types-of-Epidemiological-Studies.html)

In term of descriptive studies:

Person – age, gender, ethnicity and risk taking behaviour

Place – climate, geology and population density

Time – Age (time since birth), seasonality and temporal trends

Epidemiology Triangle

(https://onlinecourses.science.psu.edu/stat507/node/25)

Agent - microbe that causes the disease such as biological (bacteria, virus, parasites), physical (radiation, physical force), chemical (pollutants, drugs), nutrients (nutritional deficiency).

  Host - organism harbouring the disease in terms of Age, race, sex, socioeconomic status, immunity, and behaviours

Environment - those external factors that cause or allow disease transmission.

Reference

*http://www.newhealthadvisor.com/Types-of-Epidemiological-Studies.html

*https://onlinecourses.science.psu.edu/stat507/node/25

*From my lecture's note named Encik Mohd Jamalil Azam

CHAPTER 2 : Environmental Health Profession In Malaysia.

CHAPTER 2 : Environmental Health Profession In Malaysia.

    Environmental health profession is very synonym with public health discipline in Malaysia. Its was started in 1870 when Sanitary Board and Municipal Corporation was established by British ruling. During that time, enforcement is the priority without neglecting other aspect such building, solid waste disposal, sewerage system, food hygiene, infectious control and water supply.

    Lets talk a little bit about the history of the profession. In 1921 until 1958, Environmental health profession were trained at King Edward College of Medicine, Singapore. However, the training was moved to the newly independent Malaya in 1958 and conducted at the Health Inspectors Training Institute at Young Road, Kuala Lumpur. At that time, graduates will be awarded a Diploma Royal Society of Health for the Promotion of Health for Health Inspector (RSH) (London). The training was then shifted to the Public Health Institute, Bangsar Road, Kuala Lumpur in 1967. Nowadays, Health Inspector training has been officially conducted at Allied Health Science College which is known as Kolej Sains Kesihatan Bersekutu (under MOH) and other public and private universities in Malaysia. The Ministry of Health recommended that Diploma holders be known as Assistant Environmental Health Officers.

(http://www.ifeh.org/spotslights/22_malaysia.html)

    Now we go to the profession of the environmental health. Assistant Environmental Health Officer (AEHO) U29 is a front liner in maintaining sustainable public health, responsible for delivering a health education and promotion to the community, and enforce of certain act or regulation in order to preserve human health. 

They are involved in a variety of activities such as:

- Inspecting food facilities.

- Investigating public health nuisances. 

- Investigating and controlling infectious disease cases. 

- Promoting safe and healthy lifestyle. 

There 4 types of local government is Malaysia, they are:

- City                                                     - City Hall & City Council

- Municipality                                       - Municipal council 

- Rural area                                           - District Council

- Special and modified local authority - Corporation, Development Board, Development Authority.

Placement of Duty:

1. Ministry of Health, Malaysia

 - Legislative and inspectorate (public health)

 - Disease control 

 - Food quality and safety

 - Engineering services 

2. Ministry of Health Training Institute 

 - Public health Institute (IKU) 

 - Allied Health Science College (KSKB)

3. Ministry of Urban Wellbeing, Housing and Local Government 

 - Environmental Health Division 

 - Maintenance and public facilities division

4. Solid Waste Management and Public Cleansing Corporation (PPSPPA)

5. The State Health Department 

 - Vector control unit 

 - Food safety and quality unit

 - Disease control unit 

 - Public health engineering unit 

 - Health promotion unit 

6. Public Hospital 

 - Public health division

7. Health District Office including border/entry point (Current update: 167)

8. Local Authorities (LA) including modified LA

9. Institute of Higher Learning (Public) 

10. Department of Occupational Safety and Health (DOSH) 

(http://www.usphs.gov/profession/environmental/)

*All these points were based from my lecture's note named Encik Mohd Jamalil Azam and I did not own of his note's point.